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Federal health officials have now recommended that we cover our faces with fabric during the coronavirus pandemic. But what material offers the most protection?

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has posted a no-sew mask pattern using a bandanna and a coffee filter as well as a video on making masks using rubber bands and folded fabrics found at home.

While a simple face covering can reduce the spread of coronavirus by blocking outgoing germs from coughs or sneezes of an infected person, experts say there is more variation in how much homemade masks might protect the wearer from incoming germs, depending on the fit and quality of the material used.

Scientists around the country have taken it upon themselves to identify everyday materials that do a better job of filtering microscopic particles. In recent tests, HEPA furnace filters scored well, as did vacuum cleaner bags, layers of 600-count pillowcases and fabric similar to flannel pajamas. Stacked coffee filters had medium scores. Scarves and bandanna material had the lowest scores, but still captured a small percentage of particles.

If you don’t have any of the materials that were tested, a simple light test can help you decide whether a fabric is a good candidate for a mask.

“Hold it up to a bright light,” said Dr. Scott Segal, chairman of anesthesiology at Wake Forest Baptist Health who recently studied homemade masks. “If light passes really easily through the fibers and you can almost see the fibers, it’s not a good fabric. If it’s a denser weave of thicker material and light doesn’t pass through it as much, that’s the material you want to use.”

Researchers say it’s important to remember that lab studies are conducted under perfect conditions with no leaks or gaps in the mask, but the test methods give us a way to compare materials. And while the degree of filtration for some homemade masks seems low, most of us — who are staying home and practicing social distancing in public — don’t need the high level of protection required for medical workers. More important, any face covering is better than none, especially if worn by a person who has the virus but doesn’t know it.

The biggest challenge of choosing a homemade mask material is to find a fabric that is dense enough to capture viral particles, but breathable enough that we can actually wear it. Some items being touted online promise high filtration scores, but the material would be unwearable.

Dressing Up for Work … at Home
Yang Wang, an assistant professor of environmental engineering at Missouri University of Science and Technology, worked with his graduate students to study various combinations of layered materials — including both air filters and fabric. “You need something that is efficient for removing particles, but you also need to breathe,” said Dr. Wang, who last fall won an international award for aerosol research.

To test everyday materials, scientists are using methods similar to those used to test medical masks, which everybody agrees should be saved for medical workers who are exposed to high doses of virus from seeing infected patients. The best medical mask — called the N95 respirator — filters out at least 95 percent of particles as small as 0.3 microns. By comparison, a typical surgical mask — made using a rectangular piece of pleated fabric with elastic ear loops — has a filtration efficiency ranging from 60 to 80 percent.

Dr. Wang’s group tested two types of air filters. An allergy-reduction HVAC filter worked the best, capturing 89 percent of particles with one layer and 94 percent with two layers. A furnace filter captured 75 percent with two layers, but required six layers to achieve 95 percent. To find a filter similar to those tested, look for a minimum efficiency reporting value (MERV) rating of 12 or higher or a microparticle performance rating of 1900 or higher.

The problem with air filters is that they potentially could shed small fibers that would be risky to inhale. So if you want to use a filter, you need to sandwich the filter between two layers of cotton fabric. Dr. Wang said one of his grad students made his own mask by following the instructions in the C.D.C. video, but adding several layers of filter material inside a bandanna.

Dr. Wang’s group also found that when certain common fabrics were used, two layers offered far less protection than four layers. A 600 thread count pillow case captured just 22 percent of particles when doubled, but four layers captured nearly 60 percent. A thick woolen yarn scarf filtered 21 percent of particles in two layers, and 48.8 percent in four layers. A 100 percent cotton bandanna did the worst, capturing only 18.2 percent when doubled, and just 19.5 percent in four layers.

The group also tested Brew Rite and Natural Brew basket-style coffee filters, which, when stacked in three layers, showed 40 to 50 percent filtration efficiency — but they were less breathable than other options.

If you are lucky enough to know a quilter, ask them to make you a mask. Tests performed at the Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine in Winston-Salem, N.C., showed good results for homemade masks using quilting fabric. Dr. Segal, of Wake Forest Baptist Health, who led the study, noted that quilters tend to use high-quality, high-thread count cotton. The best homemade masks in his study were as good as surgical masks or slightly better, testing in the range of 70 to 79 percent filtration. Homemade masks that used flimsier fabric tested as low as 1 percent filtration, Dr. Segal said.

The best-performing designs were a mask constructed of two layers of high-quality, heavyweight “quilter’s cotton,” a two-layer mask made with thick batik fabric, and a double-layer mask with an inner layer of flannel and outer layer of cotton.

Bonnie Browning, executive show director for the American Quilter’s Society, said that quilters prefer tightly woven cottons and batik fabrics that stand up over time. Ms. Browning said most sewing machines can handle only two layers of fabric when making a pleated mask, but someone who wanted four layers of protection could wear two masks at a time.

Ms. Browning said she recently reached out to quilters on Facebook and heard from 71 people who have made a combined total of nearly 15,000 masks. “We quilters are very much in the thick of what’s going on with this,” said Ms. Browning, who lives in Paducah, Ky. “One thing most of us have is a stash of fabric.”

People who don’t sew could try a folded origami mask, created by Jiangmei Wu, assistant professor of interior design at Indiana University. Ms. Wu, who is known for her breathtaking folded artwork, said she began designing a folded mask out of a medical and building material called Tyvek, as well as vacuum bags, after her brother in Hong Kong, where mask wearing is common, suggested it. (DuPont, the maker of Tyvek, said in a statement that Tyvek is intended for medical apparel, not masks.) The folded mask pattern is free online, as is a video demonstrating the folding process. In tests at Missouri University and University of Virginia, scientists found that vacuum bags removed between 60 percent and 87 percent of particles. But some brands of vacuum bags may contain fiberglass or are harder to breathe through than other materials, and shouldn’t be used. Ms. Wu used a bag by EnviroCare Technologies, which has said it does not use fiberglass in its paper and synthetic cloth bags.

“I wanted to create an alternative for people who don’t sew,” said Ms. Wu, who said she is talking to various groups to find other materials that will be effective in a folded mask. “Given the shortage of all kinds of materials, even vacuum bags might run out.”

The scientists who conducted the tests used a standard of 0.3 microns because that is the measure used by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health for medical masks.

Linsey Marr, a Virginia Tech aerosol scientist and an expert in the transmission of viruses, said the certification method for respirators and HEPA filters focuses on 0.3 microns because particles around that size are the hardest to catch. While it seems counterintuitive, particles smaller than 0.1 microns are actually easier to catch because they have a lot of random motion that makes them bump into the filter fibers, she said.

“Even though coronavirus is around 0.1 microns, it floats around in a wide range of sizes, from around 0.2 to several hundred microns, because people shed the virus in respiratory fluid droplets that also contain lots of salts and proteins and other things,” said Dr. Marr. “Even if the water in the droplets fully evaporates, there’s still a lot of salt and proteins and other gunk that stays behind as solid or gel-like material. I think 0.3 microns is still useful for guidance because the minimum filtration efficiency will be somewhere around this size, and it’s what NIOSH uses.”

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REFERENCE NUMBER: T-6985 COGENERATION PLANT 1.2 MEGAWATTS NEAR NEW COGENERATION SYSTEM WITH MODULAR DESIGN THAT HAS NEVER BEEN RUN IN PRODUCTION: THIS SYSTEM IS A 1.2-MEGAWATT POWER PLANT AND CAN BURN BARK, SAWDUST, AGRICULTURAL WASTES SUCH AS PEANUT SHELLS, RICE HULLS, STRAW, ANIMAL RESIDUE, WET WOOD, ETC. THIS SYSTEM WILL CONVERT SUCH WASTE PRODUCTS INTO USEABLE THERMAL AND ELECTRICAL ENERGY. THIS SOLID WASTE STREAM CAN BE CONVERTED INTO PARTICLE FORM BY THE USE OF A COMMERCIAL SHREDDER, CONVEYED TO A SILO FOR STORAGE, AND THEN FED AUTOMATICALLY INTO THE MULTI-ZONE BURNER. STEAM IS GENERATED THROUGH A LOW PRESSURE 275 DEGREE (DE-RATED FROM 300 DEGREE) STAINLESS STEEL BOILER WITH A HEAT EXCHANGER. INLET STEAM IS 475 PSIG AT 700 DEGREES FTT WITH A MAXIMUM OF 22,000 LBS/HOUR BUT COULD BE INCREASED TO 24,000 LBS/HOUR. EXHAUST STEAM PRESSURE IS 3" HGA AT 5449 RPM BUT DESIGNED TO RUN AT 4" ABSOLUTE VACUUM. STEAM IS TRANSFERRED TO THE 3-STAGE BACK PRESSURE TURBINE RATED AT 1654HP DETUNED TO 1200HP TO MATCH THE GENERATOR. THIS SYSTEM COMES COMPLETE WITH GENERATOR CONTROL CENTER, BOILER CONTROL CENTER, COMBUSTION CONTROL CENTER, CONTROL ROOM SWITCHBOARD, TURBINE OIL SYSTEM, DUST DELIVERY CONTROL SYSTEM, SWITCHGEAR AND PLC CONTROLS. THIS PLANT WAS NEW IN 2005/2006 WHEN INSTALLED AND HAS NEVER BEEN RUN EXCEPT FOR PERMITTING FUNCTION. THE TURBINE GEARBOX AND GENERATOR WERE OEM REBUILT. THE COMPANY PURCHASED THIS SYSTEM WITH A GUARANTEE THE BURNER COULD MEET NOX STANDARDS. AFTER INSTALLATION, THE BURNER COULD NOT EFFICIENTLY BURN FIBER WITH HIGH FORMALDEHYDE CONTENT. CONSEQUENTLY, THE BURNER COULD NOT MEET THOSE NOX STANDARDS THAT ARE ONE OF THE MOST STRINGENT SET OF STANDARDS IN NORTH AMERICA. THESE MULTI-STAGE BURNERS ARE USED THROUGHOUT NORTH AMERICA AND MEET OR EXCEED NOX CONTROL STANDARDS IN OTHER AREAS WITHOUT PROBLEMS. THIS COGEN SYSTEM CAN BE PROFESSIONALLY DISMANTLED, ALL EQUIPMENT TAGGED FOR REINSTALLATION AND SHIPPED TO YOUR FACILITY, REASSEMBLED, AND CONNECTED TO YOUR PRESENT ELECTRICAL GRID SYSTEM. IT WOULD TAKE APPROXIMATELY 10 WEEKS TO DISMANTLE THE PLANT AND 15 TRUCKS TO SHIP THE EQUIPMENT TO YOUR PLANT SITE, AND APPROXIMATELY 16 WEEKS TO REASSEMBLE. THIS PLANT WOULD INCLUDE EVERYTHING NEEDED EXCEPT FUEL PROCESSING (GRINDING), STORAGE AND A TRANSFORMER TO SUPPLY POWER TO YOUR FACILITY. SHIPMENT OF THE PLANT WOULD BE BROKEN DOWN AS FOLLOWS: FIVE 53' TRAILER VANS TO LEGAL WEIGHT TEN 53' FLATBED TRAILERS TOTAL WEIGHT OF COGEN PLANT EQUIPMENT = 581,000 LBS. TIE-DOWN GEAR, CHAINS, BLOCKS AND CHOKES = 6,000 LBS. GROSS CUBIC SETTING OF CARGO = 67,840 CUBIC FEET MACHINERY PROPOSAL USED 1.2-MEGAWATT POWER PLANT CONSISTING OF THE FOLLOWING: DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT 3-STAGE BURNER BOILER EGR FAN ID FAN SUPPLY WATER TANK SERVICE WATER PUMP WATER SOFTNER AND FILTER BOILER WATER PUMP SYSTEM DUAL CYCLONE SEPARATOR ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR ESP TRANSFORMER ESP PUMP SYSTEM CONDENSER PUMP SYSTEM STEAM TURBINE SENTINEL GENERATOR GENERATOR CONTROL CENTER BOILER CONTROL CENTER COMBUSTION CONTOL CENTER PLANT #2 SWITCHGEAR CONTROL ROOM SWITCHBOARD TURBINE OIL SYSTEM DUST DELIVERY CONTROL SYSTEM CONDENSER CONTROL PANEL ESP CONTROL PANEL TURBINE OIL CONTROL PLANT #1 POWER SWITCHGEAR COGENERATION PROJECT LOADING ANALYSIS BOILER FEEDWATER TANK LOADPOINT: LP4 FOOTING LENGTH 9.00 FT WIDTH 9.00 FT DEPTH 0.67 FT COUNT 1 EA CUBIC FT 54.03 CUFT TOTAL CU FT 54.03 CUFT LOAD CENT. HT. 4.00 FT MACHINE FOOT: LENGTH 6.00 FT WIDTH 6.00 FT COUNT 1.00 EA TYPE 1 MACHINE WT. 16,000 LBS FOOTING WT. 8,104 LBS FOOTING LOAD 197.53 LBS/SQFT SOIL LOADING 297.58 LBS/SQFT *TANK ASSEMBLY IS BOLTED DOWN 1=EVENLY DISTRIBUTED ACROSS BASE 2=CONCENTRATED FOOTPRINT APPROX. PSF WHICH IS DISTRIBUTED OVER ENTIRE SLAB COGENERATION PROJECT LOADING ANALYSIS STEAM UNIT LOADPOINT: LP3 - FOOTING LENGTH 25.00 FT - 13.00 FT WIDTH 14.00 FT - 3.00 FT DEPTH 1.00 FT - 2.00 FT COUNT 1 EA - 3 EA CUBIC FT 350.00 CUFT - 234.00 CUFT TOTAL CU FT 584.00 CUFT LOAD CENT. HT. 8.00 FT MACHINE FOOT: LENGTH 10.30 FT WIDTH 1.00 FT COUNT 3.00 EA TYPE 2 MACHINE WT. 53,000 LBS FOOTING WT. 52,500 LBS FOOTING LOAD 151.43 LBS/SQFT SOIL LOADING 301.43 LBS/SQFT *BOILER ASSEMBLY IS BOLTED DOWN 1=EVENLY DISTRIBUTED ACROSS BASE 2=CONCENTRATED FOOTPRINT APPROX. 1,715.21 PSF WHICH IS DISTRIBUTED OVER ENTIRE SLAB COGENERATION PROJECT LOADING ANALYSIS CONDENSOR UNIT LOADPOINT: LP2 FOOTING LENGTH 23.00 FT WIDTH 3.00 FT DEPTH 3.00 FT COUNT 6 EA CUBIC FT 1,242.00 CUFT TOTAL CU FT LOAD CENT. HT. NA* FT MACHINE FOOT: LENGTH 2.00 FT WIDTH 2.00 FT COUNT 6.00 EA TYPE 2 MACHINE WT. 40,000 LBS FOOTING WT. 186,300 LBS FOOTING LOAD 1,666.67 LBS/SQFT SOIL LOADING 546.62 LBS/SQFT *CONDENSOR ASSEMBLY IS WELDED DOWN 1=EVENLY DISTRIBUTED ACROSS BASE 2=BASE PAD LOADING IS CONDCENTATED COGENERATION PROJECT LOADING ANALYSIS TURBINE-GENERATOR SET LOADPOINT: LP6 FOOTING LENGTH 21.00 FT WIDTH 9.00 FT DEPTH 1.00 FT COUNT 1 EA CUBIC FT 189.00 CUFT TOTAL CU FT 189.00 CUFT LOAD CENT. HT. 3.50 FT MACHINE FOOT: LENGTH 6.00 FT WIDTH 6.00 FT COUNT 1.00 EA TYPE 1 MACHINE WT. 38,000 LBS FOOTING WT. 28,350 LBS FOOTING LOAD 201.06 LBS/SQFT SOIL LOADING 351.06 LBS/SQFT * ASSEMBLY IS BOLTED DOWN 1=EVENLY DISTRIBUTED ACROSS BASE 2=CONCENTRATED FOOTPRINT APPROX. NA PSF WHICH IS DISTRIBUTED OVER ENTIRE SLAB COGENERATION PROJECT LOADING ANALYSIS COMBUSTION UNIT LOADPOINT: LP1 LENGTH 24.75 FT WIDTH 8.50 FT DEPTH 1.00 FT COUNT 1 EA CUBIC FT 210.38 CUFT TOTAL CU FT LOAD CENT. HT. 6.50 FT MACHINE FOOT: LENGTH 24.58 FT WIDTH 7.60 FT COUNT 1.00 EA TYPE 1 MACHINE WT. 80,000 LBS FOOTING WT. 31,556 LBS FOOTING LOAD 428.25 LBS/SQFT SOIL LOADING 597.17 LBS/SQFT *BURNER ASSEMBLY IS BOLTED DOWN 1=EVENLY DISTRIBUTED ACROSS BASE COGENERATION PROJECT LOADING ANALYSIS WET ESP UNIT LOADPOINT: LP5 FOOTING LENGTH 9.00 FT WIDTH 9.00 FT DEPTH 0.67 FT COUNT 1 EA CUBIC FT 54.03 CUFT TOTAL CU FT 54.03 CUFT LOAD CENT. HT. 9.00 FT MACHINE FOOT: LENGTH 6.00 FT WIDTH 6.00 FT COUNT 1.00 EA TYPE 1 MACHINE WT. 38,000 LBS FOOTING WT. 8,104 LBS FOOTING LOAD 469.14 LBS/SQFT SOIL LOADING 569.19 LBS/SQFT * ASSEMBLY IS BOLTED DOWN 1=EVENLY DISTRIBUTED ACROSS BASE 2=CONCENTRATED FOOTPRINT APPROX. NA PSF WHICH IS DISTRIBUTED OVER ENTIRE SLAB COGENERATION CONCRETE FOOTING LOADING ANALYSIS LIVE + LOAD DEAD FOOT WIND THICKNESS YDS WIEGHT POINT DESCRIPTION WEIGHT LENGTH WIDTH QTY PSF LOAD LBS INCHES LBS 1 COMBUSTION UNIT 80,000 25 8 1 400 12 7.41 2 CONDENSER STRUCTURE 80,000 3 3 6 1,481 36 6.00 3 STEAM GENERATOR 105,500 3 12 3 977 12 4.00 4 BOILER FEED WATER TANK 16,000 9 9 1 198 4 1.00 5 WESP UNIT 38,000 8 8 1 594 12 2.37 6 TURBINE GEN SET 32,000 6 23 1 232 12 5.11 7 SILO* 230,000 21 21 1 345,000 36 49.00 330,750 PAVE UNDER STEAM UNIT 12 28 1 4 4.15 MISC. STEEL FOOTINGS 1.5 1.5 15 12 1.25 MISC AREA PAVEMENT 72 5 1 4 4.44 84.73 8.47 FACTOR ESTIMATED CONCRETE USAGE 93.20 YARDS * SPECIFICATION MIGHT CHANGE WHEN ENGINEERING DRAWINGS COME FROM MANUFACTURER FUEL METERING BIN FUEL IS TRANSFERRED FROM A STORAGE BIN TO THE METERING BIN. THE METERING BIN IS PROVIDED TO PLACE A SUPPLY OF FUEL IN CLOSE PROXIMITY TO THE COMBUSTION SYSTEM AND ASSURE A CONSTANT SUPPLY OF FUEL TO THE COMBUSTION SYSTEM. THIS IS USUALLY A SMALL BIN PROVIDING UP TO TWO HOURS OF FUEL STORAGE CLOSE TO THE COMBUSTION SYSTEM. BIN IS SUPPLIED WITH A HATCH AND A SIGHT GLASS FOR EASILY DETERMINING THE QUANTITY OF FUEL PRESENT. THE METERING BIN IS EQUIPPED WITH A LIVE BOTTOM AUGER SYSTEM TO ASSURE A CONSTANT FLOW OF FUEL TO THE COMBUSTION SYSTEM. THE FUEL FLOWS INTO A SCREW CONVEYOR THAT TRANSPORTS THE FUEL TO THE COMBUSTION SYSTEM. THIS BIN IS EQUIPPED WITH HIGH- AND LOW-LEVEL SENSORS. FAILURE OF THE FUEL TRANSFER CONVEYORS OR A PROBLEM WITH THE PRIMARY FUEL STORAGE DEVICES IS SIGNALED WHEN THE METERING BIN LEVEL IS LOW FOR AN ADJUSTABLE PERIOD OF TIME. THE DRIVE MOTOR AND LEVEL SWITCHES ARE WIRED TO A JUNCTION BOX ON THE METERING BIN. METERING BIN SIZES WILL VARY ACCORDING TO THE FUEL NEEDS OF THE COMBUSTION SYSTEM. THESE BINS ARE SUPPLIED WITH OPEN TOPS WHEN THE CUSTOMER IS RESPONSIBLE FOR DELIVERY OF FUEL TO THE METERING BIN. THESE BINS WILL USUALLY BE ELEVATED ABOVE THE COMBUSTION UNIT FEED SCREW CONVEYOR. LEGS CAN BE PROVIDED WITH THESE UNITS TO SUPPORT THE METERING BINS FROM THE FLOOR OR THE CUSTOMER CAN PROVIDE SUPPORTS AS APPROPRIATE. THE UNITS ARE SUPPORTED FROM BELOW AT THE FOUR CORNERS OF THE BIN. COMBUSTION SYSTEM THE COMBUSTION SYSTEM CONSISTS OF SEVERAL COMPONENTS AS FOLLOWS: 1. FUEL FEED ROTARY AIR LOCK 2. FUEL FEED TRANSITION HOPPER AND HIGH/LOW LEVEL SENSORS 3. FUEL FEED SCREW CONVEYOR, EQUIPPED WITH VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE 4. PRIMARY COMBUSTION CHAMBER, CONTAINING: A. CERAMIC WALL AND ARCH SYSTEM B. THREE LEVEL COMBUSTION AIR INLETS WITH INDIVIDUAL ADJUSTMENTS AND COMBUSTION AIR FANS. COMBUSTION AIR FANS ARE EQUIPPED WITH VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES C. STATIONARY GRATE SYSTEM FOR INTRODUCTION OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY COMBUSTION AIR D. ASH AUGER SCREWS FABRICATED OF HIGH TEMPERATURE STAINLESS STEEL FOR ASSURING PROPER DISTRIBUTION OF THE FIRE WITHIN THE FIRE BOX AND AUTOMATIC REMOVAL OF THE ASH REMAINING FROM THE COMBUSTION OF THE FUEL MATERIAL. 1. SECONDARY COMBUSTION CHAMBER A. CERAMIC WALL AND ARCH SYSTEM B. PROVIDES FOR AN EXTENDED DWELL TIME TO ASSURE COMPLETE COMBUSTION OF THE COMBUSTION BYPRODUCT GASES PRIOR TO LEAVING THE COMBUSTION SYSTEM. 1. HOT GAS TRANSITION FOR COMBUSTION UNIT TO HEAT EXCHANGER UNIT 2. HOT GAS DUCT WORK FROM HEAT EXCHANGER TO THE DUST COLLECTION EQUIPMENT 3. DUST COLLECTION EQUIPMENT, DESIGN DEPENDING ON FUEL AND SYSTEM SIZE 4. DUCT WORK FROM DUST COLLECTION EQUIPMENT TO INDUCED DRAFT FAN 5. INDUCED DRAFT FAN, EQUIPPED WITH VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE OR AUTOMATICALLY ADJUSTABLE DAMPER, DEPENDING ON SYSTEM DESIGN AND APPLICATION. 6. EXHAUST GAS STACK, DIAMETER AND HEIGHT DEPENDING ON SYSTEM DESIGN AND APPLICATION. THE COMBUSTION SYSTEM IS PREFABRICATED TO THE EXTENT THAT IS ALLOWABLE FOR NECESSARY SHIPPING RESTRICTIONS. IN GENERAL, THE PRIMARY COMBUSTION CHAMBER IS COMPLETELY PREFABRICATED IN THE SHOP. COMBUSTION AIR FANS AND MANIFOLDS ARE INSTALLED ON THE JOB SITE. THE SIZES OF THE COMBUSTION SYSTEMS FOR THE 600 SERIES ARE APPROXIMATELY 8 FEET WIDE. THE LENGTH OF THE UNITS IS APPROXIMATELY 25 FEET. THE OVERALL HEIGHT OF THE UNIT IS APPROXIMATELY 8 FEET. THE PRIMARY COMBUSTION CHAMBERS ARE SHIPPED COMPLETE. THE EXTENDED COMBUSTION CHAMBERS ARE SHIPPED AS COMPONENTS. STEAM BOILER SYSTEMS THE STEAM BOILER SYSTEM CONSIST OF THE NEEDED EQUIPMENT ITEMS TO PRODUCE STEAM ENERGY FROM THE HOT GASES PRODUCED BY THE CHALLENGER COMBUSTION SYSTEMS. THE BOILER IS A 300PSIG, 18,819 LBS. PER HOUR. THIS SYSTEM IS MADE UP OF THE FOLLOWING COMPONENTS: HEAT RECOVERY STEAM GENERATOR (HRSG) BOILER FEEDWATER PUMP SKID BOILER FEEDWATER STORAGE VESSEL FEEDWATER TREATMENT SKID THE HRSG UNITS ARE SIZED TO RECOVER APPROXIMATELY 75 80% OF THE THERMAL ENERGY ENTERING THE DEVICE. THE STEAM ENERGY OUTPUT IS DETERMINED BY ESTABLISHING THE THERMAL ENERGY RELEASED BY THE COMBUSTION SYSTEM TO THE HOT GASES THAT WILL BE ENTERING THE HRSG. THE STEAM FLOW OUTPUT IS DETERMINED BY ESTABLISHING THE DESIRED STEAM PRESSURE AND THE HEAT INPUT. STEAM PRODUCTION WILL VARY ACCORDING TO THE QUANTITY AND TEMPERATURE OF THE HOT GASES PRODUCED IN THE COMBUSTION SYSTEM AND THE TEMPERATURE OF THE BOILER FEEDWATER AS WELL AS THE STEAM PRESSURE DESIRED. SYSTEM INCLUDES: ECONOMIZER - INSTALLED IN OUTLET OF HRSG CONDENSATE HEATER - STEAM OPERATED - INSTALLED IN THE BOILER FEEDWATER STORAGE VESSEL SOOT BLOWER - INSTALLED IN THE HRSG TO MINIMIZE THE EFFECTS OF ASH CARRY DEAERATOR - INSTALLED IN THE BOILER FEEDWATER STORAGE VESSEL THIS HEAT RECOVERY STEAM GENERATOR UNIT WAS DESIGNED AS A FIRE TUBE BOILER FOR A SINGLE PASS OF THE HOT GASES THROUGH THE UNIT WITH STEAM PRESSURES UP TO 300 PSIG. THE UNIT WAS DESIGNED WITH AMPLE STEAMING VOLUME TO ASSURE A GOOD QUALITY OF STEAM GENERATION. STEAM IS OF A QUALITY SUFFICIENT TO ENTER INTO A STEAM TURBINE GENERATOR UNIT. BOILER FEEDWATER PUMP PACKAGE IN ADDITION TO THE BOILER, A BOILER FEED WATER PUMP PACKAGE IS INCLUDED. THIS PACKAGE CONSISTS OF A PREFABRICATED SKID CONTAINING TWO BOILER FEEDWATER PUMPS AND NECESSARY PIPING AND VALVES. ONE PUMP IS THE DESIGNATED “RUN” PUMP AND THE OTHER IS A DESIGNATED “SPARE” PUMP. A FLOW METER, PRESSURE GAUGES AND TEMPERATURE GAUGE ARE PROVIDED FOR MONITORING THE PERFORMANCE OF THE PACKAGE. PUMPS ARE SIZED FOR 125% OF DESIGN CAPACITY AND ARE INTENDED TO RUN CONTINUOUSLY TO MAINTAIN DESIRED BOILER DRUM LEVEL. PUMP PACKAGES ARE SIZED TO MATCH THE HEAT RECOVERY STEAM GENERATOR UNITS. BOILER FEEDWATER STORAGE TANK THE SYSTEM ALSO INCLUDES A BOILER FEED WATER STORAGE TANK. THIS PACKAGE CONSISTS OF AN INSULATED TANK FOR STORAGE OF CONDENSATE AND BOILER FEEDWATER FOR THE BOILER SYSTEM. THE TANK IS CONSTRUCTED TO A 15 PSIG RATING AND CAN BE OPERATED AT A PRESSURE OF 5 PSIG IF NECESSARY. STANDARD DESIGNS CALL FOR VENTED TANKS. A FLOW METER FOR CONDENSATE RETURN AND A FLOW METER FOR MAKEUP WATER ARE PROVIDED. A PRESSURE GAUGE, LEVEL GAUGE AND TEMPERATURE GAUGE ARE PROVIDED FOR MONITORING THE CONDITION OF THE CONDENSATE WITHIN THE TANK. THE TANK IS PROVIDED WITH A STAND TO ELEVATE THE TANK ABOVE THE SUCTION OF THE BOILER FEEDWATER PUMPS. IN SOME CASES, IT WILL BE DESIRABLE TO LOCATE THE TANK ABOVE THE INLET TO THE BOILER. THE STANDS FOR THESE APPLICATIONS ARE TO BE PROVIDED BY THE CUSTOMER. THE TANK IS SIZED TO PROVIDE FOR OPERATION OF THE BOILER AT FULL OUTPUT FOR A PERIOD OF UP TO 20 MINUTES. THE TANK IS ALSO EQUIPPED WITH INSTRUMENTATION TO TIE THE UNIT INTO THE OVERALL COMBUSTION/BOILER CONTROL SYSTEM. THE FOLLOWING DEVICES/INPUTS ARE PROVIDED: TEMPERATURE SENSOR, PRESSURE SENSOR, LEVEL SENSOR, AND FIVE POINT LEVEL SWITCH FOR ALARMS AND SHUTDOWN LOGIC. THE PACKAGE IS ALSO EQUIPPED WITH AN AUTOMATIC WATER VALVE TO PROVIDE MAKEUP WATER IN THE EVENT THE WATER LEVEL REACHES THE LOW-LEVEL ALARM POSITION. THIS IS PROVIDED THROUGH A FLOAT OPERATED VALVE. THE TANK AND CONTROL DEVICES ARE PRE-PACKAGED WITH ALL CONTROL DEVICES WIRED TO A JUNCTION BOX MOUNTED ON THE UNIT. THE OPERATING VOLTAGE FOR THE CONTROL DEVICES IS 24VDC. THE TANK IS ALSO INSULATED TO REDUCE HEAT LOSS TO THE ATMOSPHERE. DEAERATORS A DEAERATOR HAS BEEN PROVIDED TO REMOVE UNWANTED OXYGEN AND OTHER NON-CONDENSABLE GASES FROM THE BOILER FEEDWATER. THE DEAERATOR IS PROVIDED FOR THIS PURPOSE. THIS IS GENERALLY A REQUIRED ITEM ON 150 AND 300 PSIG STEAM SYSTEMS. THIS IS A REQUIRED DEVICE ON ALL STEAM SYSTEMS PROVIDING STEAM FOR STEAM TURBINE GENERATOR APPLICATIONS. FEEDWATER TREATMENT PACKAGES BOILER FEED WATER MUST BE OF HIGH QUALITY, ALL CONTAMINANTS THAT WOULD DAMAGE THE BOILER OR STEAM TURBINES MUST BE REMOVED FROM THE FEED WATER STREAM. THERE ARE GENERALLY THREE AREAS OF CONCERN. FIRST, THE WATER MUST BE FREE FROM SOLIDS SUCH AS SAND OR OTHER CONTAMINANTS. SECOND, DISSOLVED MINERALS SUCH SODIUM AND POTASSIUM MUST BE REMOVED. THIRD, NON-CONDENSABLE GASES SUCH AS OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE MUST BE REMOVED. THE REMOVAL OF THESE CONTAMINANTS REQUIRES A THREE STAGE REMOVAL PLAN. FIRST, ALL WATER ENTERING THE BOILER SYSTEM SHOULD BE FILTERED. SECOND, THE WATER SHOULD PASS THROUGH A WATER SOFTENER UNIT OF SOME TYPE AND THIRD, CHEMICALS WILL BE ADDED TO THE WATER TO ASSIST IN THE REMOVAL OF THE NON-CONDENSABLE GASES AND OTHER CONTAMINANTS. THE FEED WATER TREATMENT PACKAGE WILL INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING EQUIPMENT: 1. WATER FILTER - DUAL UNIT 2. WATER SOFTENER - DUAL UNIT 3. CHEMICAL FEED PUMPS (3) - SEPARATE ASSEMBLY THIS EQUIPMENT IS PREPACKAGED ON A SKID. THE CONTROLS AND PUMP MOTORS ARE PRE-WIRED TO A JUNCTION BOX ON THE PACKAGE. THE CHEMICAL ADDITIVES PUMPS ARE PACKAGED INTO A PUMP STAND. THE STAND IS DESIGNED TO BE LOCATED IN A POSITION AGAINST A WALL WHERE THE CONTAINERS FOR THE VARIOUS BOILER FEEDWATER CHEMICALS CAN BE PLACED. STEAM TURBINE GENERATOR SYSTEMS AN ELLIOT MODEL 2DYR3-MULTISTAGE TURBINE WILL BE USED FOR THE SYSTEM. IT CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING: 5449 RPM, INLET STEAM PRESSURE 475 PSIG, INLET STEAM TEMPERATURE 700’HGA, EXHAUST STEAM PRESSURE 3” HGA, MAXIMUM INLET STEAM TEMPERATURE 750 FTT, RATED POWER 1654 HP WITH ALL HAND VALVES OPEN. IT INCLUDES: 1. GEAR REDUCER 2. ELECTRIC GENERATOR A. INDUCTION B. SYNCHRONOUS 1. LUBRICATION SYSTEM 2. INSTRUMENTATION / CONTROLS 3. GENERATOR BREAKER THE BASIC COMPONENTS WERE ASSEMBLED INTO A SKID PACKAGE. THE PACKAGE WAS PREASSEMBLED AND SHIPPED AS A COMPLETED ASSEMBLY. THE CONTROLS AND GENERATOR BREAKER ARE PRE-ASSEMBLED AND TESTED PRIOR TO BEING SHIPPED TO THE CUSTOMER. STEAM CONDENSER SYSTEMS THE PURPOSE OF A STEAM CONDENSER SYSTEM IS TO TAKE THE STEAM THAT EXITS THE STEAM TURBINE GENERATOR UNIT AND CONDENSE IT TO WATER SO THAT IT MAY BE RETURNED TO THE BOILER FEEDWATER SYSTEM. THIS ALLOWS FOR THE CONSERVATION OF THERMAL ENERGY, WATER AND THE ASSOCIATED BOILER FEEDWATER TREATMENT CHEMICALS. A WATER-COOLED DESIGN CONDENSER HAS BEEN INCLUDED. AIR COOLED CONDENSER SYSTEMS THE AIR COOLED CONDENSER SYSTEM IS MADE UP OF FRAMES THAT CONTAIN MULTIPLE ROWS OF CARBON STEEL TUBES THAT ARE WRAPPED WITH AN ALUMINUM FIN. THIS FINNED ARRANGEMENT ALLOWS THE CARBON STEEL TUBE TO CONDUCT THERMAL ENERGY INTO THE AIR SURROUNDING THE UNIT. IN ORDER TO MAXIMIZE THE HEAT DISSIPATION, THE UNITS ARE SUPPLIED WITH FANS TO MOVE THE COOLER AMBIENT AIR PAST THE FINNED TUBES. AIR POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT A COMPLETE AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM WITH EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR THIS PROJECT HAS BEEN INCLUDED, BASED ON LOCAL REQUIREMENTS. THE EQUIPMENT AVAILABLE CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING: 1. MULTICLONE - THESE UNITS ARE DESIGNED TO REMOVE PARTICULATE MATTER THAT IS AS SMALL AS 10 MICRONS IN SIZE. SINCE AIR EMISSIONS ARE GENERALLY BASED ON A QUANTITY OF EMISSIONS ON AN ANNUAL BASIS, THOSE QUANTITIES MUST BE ESTIMATED AND QUANTIFIED. WHERE THE EMISSIONS FROM THE MULTICLONE UNIT EXCEED THOSE QUANTITIES, THEN ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT MUST BE USED. 2. BAG HOUSES - THESE UNITS CONSIST OF MULTIPLE HIGH TEMPERATURE RATED DUST COLLECTION BAGS. THESE BAGS CAN BE PROVIDED IN DIFFERENT TYPES AND CONFIGURATIONS AS WELL AS COATED AND UNCOATED TO ACHIEVE DIFFERING COLLECTION EFFICIENCIES. THE DESIGN OF THE BAG HOUSE SYSTEMS WILL VARY ACCORDING TO LOCAL REQUIREMENTS. 3. SCRUBBERS - THESE SYSTEMS CONSIST OF A SPRAY TOWER, WATER COLLECTION BASIN, A CIRCULATING WATER PUMP SYSTEM AND A MIST ELIMINATOR SECTION. THESE UNITS INTRODUCE A FINE SPRAY OF WATER INTO THE EXHAUST GASES. THIS FINE MIST OF WATER DROPLETS ATTRACT THE DUST PARTICLES AND THE DUST PARTICLES ARE COLLECTED ON THE FINE WATER DROPLETS. THESE WATER DROPLETS THEN FALL INTO THE COLLECTION BASIN. SOME AMOUNT OF THE SPRAY IS CARRIED UP THE TOWER, THIS WATER IS COLLECTED IN A MIST ELIMINATOR SECTION OF THE TOWER AND THE COLLECTED WATER IS CHANNELED TO THE COLLECTION BASIN. A SMALL AMOUNT OF WATER IS CONTINUOUSLY BLED FROM THE COLLECTION BASIN TO REMOVE THE COLLECTED PARTICULATE MATERIAL. THIS IS GENERALLY INTRODUCED INTO THE COMBUSTION UNIT AND REMOVED BY THE ASH COLLECTION SYSTEM THAT IS A PART OF THE COMBUSTION SYSTEM. SOME SMALL AMOUNT OF WATER IS EVAPORATED AS THE COMBUSTION GASES ARE COOLED TO APPROXIMATELY 150F. A CONTINUOUS MAKE UP WATER SUPPLY IS REQUIRED. 4. WET ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS - IN SYSTEMS REQUIRING AN ADDITIONAL LEVEL OF PARTICULATE CONTROL AN ELECTROSTATIC COLLECTION UNIT IS ADDED TO THE TOP OF THE SCRUBBER SYSTEM. THIS ELECTROSTATIC UNIT REPLACES THE MIST ELIMINATOR THAT IS PROVIDED AS A PART OF THE SCRUBBER DESCRIBED ABOVE. THIS UNIT REMOVES A HIGHER PERCENTAGE OF THE DUST/WATER PARTICLES FROM THE EXHAUST GAS STREAM. CONTROL AND POWER DISTRIBUTION CONTROLS THIS COGEN PLANT HAS FULLY INTEGRATED ALL ASPECTS OF THE COGENERATIONS FACILITIES EQUIPMENT PACKAGE INTO A SINGLE CONTROL SYSTEM. THIS IS ACCOMPLISHED USING PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS AND TOUCH SCREEN OPERATOR INTERFACE DEVICES TO CREATE A WINDOW ON THE ENTIRE SYSTEM. THIS SYSTEM WAS DESIGNED FOR A MINIMUM OF OPERATOR ATTENTION. SOFTWARE IS CONFIGURED TO PRESENT CLEAR WINDOWS INTO THE FACILITIES OPERATIONS. THIS COGENERATION SYSTEM WAS SET UP WITH DUAL OPERATOR INTERFACES TO ASSURE A VIEW OF MULTIPLE OPERATING COMPONENTS AT ALL TIMES. POWER DISTRIBUTION THE POWER DISTRIBUTION EQUIPMENT IS PROVIDED AS FOLLOWS. BUT, IN GENERAL THE FOLLOWING DESCRIPTION WILL APPLY. EACH COGENERATION SYSTEM WILL BE PROVIDED WITH A FACILITY MAIN BREAKER. THIS MAIN BREAKER WILL BE PROVIDED AT THE PRIMARY VOLTAGE OF THE GENERATOR PORTION OF THE PROJECT. IN MOST CASES THIS WILL BE 480 V, 3 PH AND 60 Hz OR 400 V, 3 PH AND 50 Hz. CUSTOMERS WILL SPECIFY THE INTERCONNECTION VOLTAGE REQUIREMENTS FOR A GIVEN APPLICATION. THIS DISCUSSION IS PRESENTED BASED ON THE NOMINAL 480 VAC SYSTEM. THIS EQUIPMENT PACKAGE IS SHIPPED IN TWO PIECES; ONE INCLUDES THE MAIN BREAKER AND THE GENERATOR BREAKER AND THE OTHER INCLUDES THE VARIOUS FACILITY BRANCH BREAKERS FOR PROVIDING POWER TO THE VARIOUS SYSTEM PANELS. THE TWO PIECES ARE JOINED TOGETHER WITH A BUS SPLICE KIT ONCE INSTALLED AT THE CUSTOMER’S FACILITY. THE POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM IS DESIGNED AS A MOTOR CONTROL CENTER TO FACILITATE EASY EQUIPMENT ADDITIONS IN THE FUTURE. Learn More

TT-4028 RG PETRO DRILLING RIG ZJ30 1800Z, YEAR 2005 TO 2008 RG PETRO DRILLING RIG ZJ30 1800Z YEAR: 2005 TO 2008 TYPE STANDARD BRAND RG PETRO CATEGORY RIGS SUBCATEGORY ONSHORE RIGS IN STOCK YES TYPE USED QUANTITY: 1 Learn More